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Physics HL

24 topics249 outcomesLocal syllabus version: 2025

A.1 Kinematics

9 outcomes

Open
  1. A.1.U1The motion of bodies through space and time can be described and analysed in terms of position, velocity, and acceleration.
  2. A.1.U2Velocity is the rate of change of position, and acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
  3. A.1.U3The change in position is the displacement.
  4. A.1.U4The difference between distance and displacement.
  5. A.1.U5The difference between instantaneous and average values of velocity, speed and acceleration, and how to determine them.
  6. A.1.U6The equations of motion for solving problems with uniformly accelerated motion: s=(u+v)/2·t, v=u+at, s=ut+½at², v²=u²+2as.
  7. A.1.U7Motion with uniform and non-uniform acceleration.
  8. A.1.U8The behaviour of projectiles in the absence of fluid resistance, and the application of the equations of motion resolved into vertical and horizontal components.
  9. A.1.U9The qualitative effect of fluid resistance on projectiles, including time of flight, trajectory, velocity, acceleration, range and terminal speed.

A.2 Forces and momentum

14 outcomes

Open
  1. A.2.U1Newton's three laws of motion.
  2. A.2.U2Forces as interactions between bodies.
  3. A.2.U3Forces acting on a body can be represented in a free-body diagram.
  4. A.2.U4Free-body diagrams can be analysed to find the resultant force on a system.
  5. A.2.U5The nature and use of contact forces: normal force F_N, surface frictional force F_f (F_f ≤ μ_s·F_N or F_f = μ_d·F_N), tension, elastic restoring force F_H = −kx (Hooke's law), viscous drag F_d = 6πηrv (Stokes), buoyancy F_b = ρVg.
  6. A.2.U6The nature and use of field forces: gravitational force F_g = mg, electric force F_e, magnetic force F_m.
  7. A.2.U7Linear momentum p = mv remains constant unless the system is acted upon by a resultant external force.
  8. A.2.U8A resultant external force constitutes an impulse J = FΔt; the applied impulse equals the change in momentum.
  9. A.2.U9Newton's second law: F = ma (constant mass) and F = Δp/Δt (variable mass).
  10. A.2.U10Elastic and inelastic collisions of two bodies, and explosions; energy considerations in each.
  11. A.2.U11Bodies moving along a circular trajectory at constant speed experience a centripetal acceleration a = v²/r = ω²r = 4π²r/T².
  12. A.2.U12Circular motion is caused by a centripetal force acting perpendicular to the velocity.
  13. A.2.U13A centripetal force causes the body to change direction even if its magnitude of velocity may remain constant.
  14. A.2.U14Motion along a circular trajectory described using angular velocity ω, related to linear speed by v = 2πr/T = ωr.

A.3 Work, energy and power

11 outcomes

Open
  1. A.3.U1The principle of the conservation of energy.
  2. A.3.U2Work done by a force is equivalent to a transfer of energy.
  3. A.3.U3Energy transfers can be represented on a Sankey diagram.
  4. A.3.U4Work W done on a body by a constant force: W = Fs cos θ.
  5. A.3.U5Work done by the resultant force on a system equals the change in the energy of the system.
  6. A.3.U6Mechanical energy is the sum of kinetic energy, gravitational potential energy and elastic potential energy.
  7. A.3.U7In the absence of frictional/resistive forces, the total mechanical energy of a system is conserved.
  8. A.3.U8If mechanical energy is conserved: E_k = ½mv² = p²/2m; ΔE_p = mgΔh; E_H = ½k(Δx)².
  9. A.3.U9Power P = ΔW/Δt = Fv.
  10. A.3.U10Efficiency η = E_output/E_input = P_output/P_input.
  11. A.3.U11Energy density of fuel sources.

A.4 Rigid body mechanics

11 outcomes · HL only

Open
  1. A.4.U1The torque τ of a force about an axis: τ = Fr sin θ. HL only
  2. A.4.U2Bodies in rotational equilibrium have a resultant torque of zero. HL only
  3. A.4.U3An unbalanced torque applied to an extended, rigid body will cause angular acceleration. HL only
  4. A.4.U4Rotation described using angular displacement, angular velocity and angular acceleration. HL only
  5. A.4.U5Equations of motion for uniform angular acceleration: Δθ=(ω_f+ω_i)/2·t, ω_f=ω_i+αt, Δθ=ω_i·t+½αt², ω_f²=ω_i²+2αΔθ. HL only
  6. A.4.U6The moment of inertia I depends on the distribution of mass about an axis of rotation; for point masses: I = Σmr². HL only
  7. A.4.U7Newton's second law for rotation: τ = Iα. HL only
  8. A.4.U8Angular momentum L = Iω of an extended body rotating with angular speed. HL only
  9. A.4.U9Angular momentum remains constant unless the body is acted upon by a resultant torque. HL only
  10. A.4.U10Angular impulse: ΔL = τΔt = Δ(Iω). HL only
  11. A.4.U11Kinetic energy of rotational motion: E_k = ½Iω² = L²/2I. HL only

A.5 Galilean and special relativity

14 outcomes · HL only

Open
  1. A.5.U1Reference frames. HL only
  2. A.5.U2Newton's laws of motion are the same in all inertial reference frames (Galilean relativity). HL only
  3. A.5.U3In Galilean relativity: x′ = x − vt and t′ = t. HL only
  4. A.5.U4Galilean velocity addition: u′ = u − v. HL only
  5. A.5.U5The two postulates of special relativity. HL only
  6. A.5.U6Lorentz transformations: x′ = γ(x−vt), t′ = γ(t − vx/c²), where γ = 1/√(1 − v²/c²). HL only
  7. A.5.U7Relativistic velocity addition: u′ = (u−v)/(1 − uv/c²). HL only
  8. A.5.U8The space–time interval (Δs)² = (cΔt)² − (Δx)² is an invariant quantity. HL only
  9. A.5.U9Proper time interval and proper length. HL only
  10. A.5.U10Time dilation: Δt = γΔt₀. HL only
  11. A.5.U11Length contraction: L = L₀/γ. HL only
  12. A.5.U12The relativity of simultaneity. HL only
  13. A.5.U13Space–time diagrams; the angle between the world line of a moving particle and the time axis is given by tan θ = v/c. HL only
  14. A.5.U14Muon decay experiments provide experimental evidence for time dilation and length contraction. HL only

B.1 Thermal energy transfers

15 outcomes

Open
  1. B.1.U1Molecular theory in solids, liquids and gases.
  2. B.1.U2Density ρ = m/V.
  3. B.1.U3Kelvin and Celsius scales are used to express temperature; a change in temperature is the same on both scales.
  4. B.1.U4Kelvin temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of particles: Ē_k = (3/2)k_B T.
  5. B.1.U5Internal energy is the total intermolecular potential energy plus the total random kinetic energy of the molecules.
  6. B.1.U6Temperature difference determines the direction of the resultant thermal energy transfer between bodies.
  7. B.1.U7A phase change represents a change in particle behaviour arising from a change in energy at constant temperature.
  8. B.1.U8Quantitative analysis of thermal energy transfers using specific heat capacity c and specific latent heat L: Q = mcΔT and Q = mL.
  9. B.1.U9Conduction, convection and thermal radiation are the primary mechanisms for thermal energy transfer.
  10. B.1.U10Conduction in terms of the difference in kinetic energy of particles.
  11. B.1.U11Quantitative analysis of rate of thermal energy transfer by conduction: ΔQ/Δt = kA·ΔT/Δx.
  12. B.1.U12Qualitative description of thermal energy transferred by convection due to fluid density differences.
  13. B.1.U13Energy transferred by radiation modelled by the Stefan-Boltzmann law: L = σAT⁴.
  14. B.1.U14The concept of apparent brightness b; luminosity L of a body: b = L / (4πd²).
  15. B.1.U15Emission spectrum of a black body; Wien's displacement law: λ_max · T = 2.9 × 10⁻³ mK.

B.2 Greenhouse effect

9 outcomes

Open
  1. B.2.U1The conservation of energy.
  2. B.2.U2Emissivity as the ratio of the power radiated per unit area by a surface compared to that of an ideal black surface at the same temperature: emissivity = (power radiated per unit area) / (σT⁴).
  3. B.2.U3Albedo as a measure of the average energy reflected off a macroscopic system: albedo = total scattered power / total incident power.
  4. B.2.U4Earth's albedo varies daily and is dependent on cloud formations and latitude.
  5. B.2.U5The solar constant S; the incoming radiative power is dependent on the projected surface, resulting in a mean incoming intensity of S/4.
  6. B.2.U6CH₄, H₂O, CO₂ and N₂O are the main greenhouse gases, each with natural and human-activity origins.
  7. B.2.U7Absorption of infrared radiation by the main greenhouse gases in terms of molecular energy levels and subsequent emission of radiation in all directions.
  8. B.2.U8The greenhouse effect can be explained in terms of both a resonance model and molecular energy levels.
  9. B.2.U9The augmentation of the greenhouse effect due to human activities is known as the enhanced greenhouse effect.

B.3 Gas laws

8 outcomes

Open
  1. B.3.U1Pressure P = F/A where F is the force exerted perpendicular to the surface.
  2. B.3.U2Amount of substance n = N/N_A where N is the number of molecules and N_A is the Avogadro constant.
  3. B.3.U3Ideal gases described by kinetic theory; a modelled system to approximate real gases.
  4. B.3.U4The ideal gas law derived from empirical gas laws: PV/T = constant.
  5. B.3.U5Equations governing ideal gases: PV = Nk_B T and PV = nRT.
  6. B.3.U6Change in momentum from collisions gives rise to pressure; P = (1/3)ρv².
  7. B.3.U7Internal energy U of an ideal monatomic gas: U = (3/2)Nk_B T or U = (3/2)nRT.
  8. B.3.U8Temperature, pressure and density conditions under which an ideal gas is a good approximation of a real gas.

B.4 Thermodynamics

12 outcomes · HL only

Open
  1. B.4.U1First law of thermodynamics: Q = ΔU + W (conservation of energy applied to a closed system). HL only
  2. B.4.U2Work done by or on a closed system: W = PΔV. HL only
  3. B.4.U3Change in internal energy: ΔU = (3/2)Nk_B ΔT = (3/2)nRΔT. HL only
  4. B.4.U4Entropy S is a thermodynamic quantity relating to the degree of disorder of particles in a system. HL only
  5. B.4.U5Entropy determined macroscopically: ΔS = ΔQ/T; and microscopically: S = k_B ln Ω. HL only
  6. B.4.U6The second law of thermodynamics: change in entropy of an isolated system sets constraints on possible physical processes. HL only
  7. B.4.U7Processes in real isolated systems are almost always irreversible; entropy of a real isolated system always increases. HL only
  8. B.4.U8Entropy of a non-isolated system can decrease locally, compensated by an equal or greater increase in the surroundings. HL only
  9. B.4.U9Isovolumetric, isobaric, isothermal and adiabatic processes obtained by keeping one variable fixed. HL only
  10. B.4.U10Adiabatic processes in monatomic ideal gases: PV^(5/3) = constant. HL only
  11. B.4.U11Cyclic gas processes used to run heat engines; efficiency η = useful work / input energy. HL only
  12. B.4.U12Carnot cycle sets the limit for efficiency: η_Carnot = 1 − T_c/T_h. HL only

B.5 Current and circuits

14 outcomes

Open
  1. B.5.U1Cells provide a source of emf.
  2. B.5.U2Chemical cells and solar cells as energy sources in circuits.
  3. B.5.U3Circuit diagrams represent the arrangement of components in a circuit.
  4. B.5.U4Direct current I as a flow of charge carriers: I = Δq/Δt.
  5. B.5.U5Electric potential difference V is work done per unit charge: V = W/q.
  6. B.5.U6Properties of electrical conductors and insulators in terms of mobility of charge carriers.
  7. B.5.U7Electric resistance and its origin; R = V/I.
  8. B.5.U8Resistivity: ρ = RA/L.
  9. B.5.U9Ohm's law.
  10. B.5.U10Ohmic and non-ohmic behaviour, including the heating effect of resistors.
  11. B.5.U11Electrical power dissipated: P = IV = I²R = V²/R.
  12. B.5.U12Combinations of resistors in series and parallel circuits (series: R_s = R_1 + R_2 + ...; parallel: 1/R_p = 1/R_1 + 1/R_2 + ...).
  13. B.5.U13Electric cells characterised by emf ε and internal resistance r: ε = I(R + r).
  14. B.5.U14Resistors can have variable resistance (thermistors, LDRs, potentiometers).

C.1 Simple harmonic motion

9 outcomes

Open
  1. C.1.U1Conditions that lead to simple harmonic motion.
  2. C.1.U2The defining equation of SHM: a = −ω²x.
  3. C.1.U3A particle undergoing SHM described using time period T, frequency f, angular frequency ω, amplitude, equilibrium position, and displacement.
  4. C.1.U4Time period: T = 1/f = 2π/ω.
  5. C.1.U5Time period of a mass–spring system: T = 2π√(m/k).
  6. C.1.U6Time period of a simple pendulum: T = 2π√(l/g).
  7. C.1.U7A qualitative approach to energy changes during one cycle of an oscillation.
  8. C.1.U8A particle undergoing SHM can be described using phase angle φ. HL only
  9. C.1.U9SHM equations: x = x₀ sin(ωt + φ); v = ωx₀ cos(ωt + φ); v = ±ω√(x₀² − x²); E_T = ½mω²x₀²; E_p = ½mω²x². HL only

C.2 Wave model

5 outcomes

Open
  1. C.2.U1Transverse and longitudinal travelling waves.
  2. C.2.U2Wavelength λ, frequency f, time period T, and wave speed v: v = fλ = λ/T.
  3. C.2.U3The nature of sound waves.
  4. C.2.U4The nature of electromagnetic waves.
  5. C.2.U5The differences between mechanical waves and electromagnetic waves.

C.3 Wave phenomena

13 outcomes

Open
  1. C.3.U1Waves travelling in two and three dimensions described through wavefronts and rays.
  2. C.3.U2Wave behaviour at boundaries: reflection, refraction and transmission.
  3. C.3.U3Wave diffraction around a body and through an aperture.
  4. C.3.U4Wavefront-ray diagrams showing refraction and diffraction.
  5. C.3.U5Snell's law, critical angle and total internal reflection; n₁/n₂ = sin θ₂/sin θ₁ = v₂/v₁.
  6. C.3.U6Superposition of waves and wave pulses.
  7. C.3.U7Double-source interference requires coherent sources.
  8. C.3.U8Condition for constructive interference: path difference = nλ.
  9. C.3.U9Condition for destructive interference: path difference = (n + ½)λ.
  10. C.3.U10Young's double-slit interference: s = λD/d where s is fringe separation, d is slit separation, D is slit-to-screen distance.
  11. C.3.U11Single-slit diffraction including intensity patterns: θ = λ/b where b is the slit width. HL only
  12. C.3.U12The single-slit pattern modulates the double-slit interference pattern. HL only
  13. C.3.U13Interference patterns from multiple slits and diffraction gratings: nλ = d sin θ. HL only

C.4 Standing waves and resonance

6 outcomes

Open
  1. C.4.U1Nature and formation of standing waves as superposition of two identical waves travelling in opposite directions.
  2. C.4.U2Nodes and antinodes, relative amplitude and phase difference of points along a standing wave.
  3. C.4.U3Standing wave patterns in strings and pipes.
  4. C.4.U4The nature of resonance including natural frequency and amplitude of oscillation based on driving frequency.
  5. C.4.U5Effect of damping on the maximum amplitude and resonant frequency of oscillation.
  6. C.4.U6Effects of light, critical and heavy damping on the system.

C.5 Doppler effect

5 outcomes

Open
  1. C.5.U1The nature of the Doppler effect for sound waves and electromagnetic waves.
  2. C.5.U2Representation of the Doppler effect using wavefront diagrams when either source or observer is moving.
  3. C.5.U3Relative change in frequency or wavelength for a light wave (v << c): Δf/f = Δλ/λ ≈ v/c.
  4. C.5.U4Shifts in spectral lines provide information about the motion of stars and galaxies.
  5. C.5.U5Observed frequency for sound/mechanical waves: moving source f′ = f(v / (v ± u_s)); moving observer f′ = f((v ± u_o) / v). HL only

D.1 Gravitational fields

14 outcomes

Open
  1. D.1.U1Kepler's three laws of orbital motion.
  2. D.1.U2Newton's universal law of gravitation: F = G(m₁m₂)/r² for bodies treated as point masses.
  3. D.1.U3Conditions under which extended bodies can be treated as point masses.
  4. D.1.U4Gravitational field strength g at a point: g = F/m = GM/r².
  5. D.1.U5Gravitational field lines.
  6. D.1.U6The gravitational potential energy E_p of a system is the work done to assemble it from infinite separation. HL only
  7. D.1.U7Gravitational potential energy for a two-body system: E_p = −G(m₁m₂)/r. HL only
  8. D.1.U8Gravitational potential V_g at a point: V_g = −GM/r. HL only
  9. D.1.U9Gravitational field strength g as the gravitational potential gradient: g = −ΔV_g/Δr. HL only
  10. D.1.U10Work done in moving a mass m in a gravitational field: W = mΔV_g. HL only
  11. D.1.U11Equipotential surfaces for gravitational fields and their relationship to field lines. HL only
  12. D.1.U12Escape speed: v_esc = √(2GM/r). HL only
  13. D.1.U13Orbital speed: v_orbital = √(GM/r). HL only
  14. D.1.U14Qualitative effect of a small viscous drag force due to the atmosphere on the height and speed of an orbiting body. HL only

D.2 Electric and magnetic fields

15 outcomes

Open
  1. D.2.U1Direction of forces between the two types of electric charge.
  2. D.2.U2Coulomb's law: F = kq₁q₂/r² where k = 1/(4πε₀).
  3. D.2.U3The conservation of electric charge.
  4. D.2.U4Millikan's experiment as evidence for quantization of electric charge.
  5. D.2.U5Electric charge can be transferred between bodies using friction, electrostatic induction and contact, including grounding.
  6. D.2.U6Electric field strength: E = F/q.
  7. D.2.U7Electric field lines.
  8. D.2.U8Relationship between field line density and field strength.
  9. D.2.U9Uniform electric field strength between parallel plates: E = V/d.
  10. D.2.U10Magnetic field lines.
  11. D.2.U11Electric potential energy E_p in terms of work done to assemble the system from infinite separation; E_p = kq₁q₂/r. HL only
  12. D.2.U12Electric potential V_e is a scalar, zero at infinity; V_e = kQ/r. HL only
  13. D.2.U13Electric field strength E as the electric potential gradient: E = −ΔV_e/Δr. HL only
  14. D.2.U14Work done in moving a charge q in an electric field: W = qΔV_e. HL only
  15. D.2.U15Equipotential surfaces for electric fields and their relationship to field lines. HL only

D.3 Motion in electromagnetic fields

6 outcomes

Open
  1. D.3.U1Motion of a charged particle in a uniform electric field.
  2. D.3.U2Motion of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field.
  3. D.3.U3Motion of a charged particle in perpendicularly orientated uniform electric and magnetic fields.
  4. D.3.U4Magnitude and direction of the force on a charge moving in a magnetic field: F = qvB sin θ.
  5. D.3.U5Magnitude and direction of the force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field: F = BIL sin θ.
  6. D.3.U6Force per unit length between parallel wires: F/L = μ₀I₁I₂/(2πr).

D.4 Induction

6 outcomes · HL only

Open
  1. D.4.U1Magnetic flux Φ = BA cos θ. HL only
  2. D.4.U2A time-changing magnetic flux induces an emf: Faraday's law ε = −NΔΦ/Δt. HL only
  3. D.4.U3A uniform magnetic field induces an emf in a straight conductor moving perpendicularly to it: ε = BvL. HL only
  4. D.4.U4The direction of induced emf is determined by Lenz's law (consequence of energy conservation). HL only
  5. D.4.U5A uniform magnetic field induces a sinusoidally varying emf in a coil rotating within it. HL only
  6. D.4.U6Effect on induced emf caused by changing the frequency of rotation. HL only

E.1 Structure of the atom

11 outcomes

Open
  1. E.1.U1The Geiger–Marsden–Rutherford experiment and the discovery of the nucleus.
  2. E.1.U2Nuclear notation: ᴬ_Z X where A is the nucleon number, Z is the proton number and X is the chemical symbol.
  3. E.1.U3Emission and absorption spectra provide evidence for discrete atomic energy levels.
  4. E.1.U4Photons are emitted and absorbed during atomic transitions.
  5. E.1.U5The frequency of the photon released during an atomic transition depends on the energy level difference: E = hf.
  6. E.1.U6Emission and absorption spectra provide information on the chemical composition.
  7. E.1.U7Relationship between radius and nucleon number: R = R₀A^(1/3), and its implications for nuclear densities. HL only
  8. E.1.U8Deviations from Rutherford scattering at high energies. HL only
  9. E.1.U9The distance of closest approach in head-on scattering experiments. HL only
  10. E.1.U10Discrete energy levels in the Bohr model for hydrogen: E = −13.6/n² eV. HL only
  11. E.1.U11Quantized energy and orbits arise from quantization of angular momentum in the Bohr model: mvr = nh/(2π). HL only

E.2 Quantum physics

9 outcomes · HL only

Open
  1. E.2.U1The photoelectric effect as evidence of the particle nature of light. HL only
  2. E.2.U2Photons of a certain frequency (threshold frequency) are required to release photoelectrons from the metal. HL only
  3. E.2.U3Einstein's explanation using the work function: E_max = hf − Φ where Φ is the work function. HL only
  4. E.2.U4Diffraction of particles as evidence of the wave nature of matter. HL only
  5. E.2.U5Matter exhibits wave–particle duality. HL only
  6. E.2.U6de Broglie wavelength: λ = h/p. HL only
  7. E.2.U7Compton scattering of light by electrons as additional evidence of the particle nature of light. HL only
  8. E.2.U8Photons scatter off electrons with increased wavelength. HL only
  9. E.2.U9Shift in photon wavelength after scattering off an electron: Δλ = (h/(m_e c))(1 − cos θ). HL only

E.3 Radioactive decay

22 outcomes

Open
  1. E.3.U1Isotopes.
  2. E.3.U2Nuclear binding energy and mass defect.
  3. E.3.U3The variation of binding energy per nucleon with nucleon number.
  4. E.3.U4Mass-energy equivalence in nuclear reactions: E = mc².
  5. E.3.U5The existence of the strong nuclear force: short-range, attractive force between nucleons.
  6. E.3.U6The random and spontaneous nature of radioactive decay.
  7. E.3.U7Changes in the state of the nucleus following α, β⁻, β⁺, γ radioactive decay.
  8. E.3.U8Radioactive decay equations for α, β⁻, β⁺, γ.
  9. E.3.U9The existence of neutrinos ν and antineutrinos ν̄.
  10. E.3.U10Penetration and ionizing ability of alpha particles, beta particles and gamma rays.
  11. E.3.U11Activity, count rate and half-life in radioactive decay.
  12. E.3.U12Changes in activity and count rate using integer values of half-life.
  13. E.3.U13The effect of background radiation on count rate.
  14. E.3.U14Evidence for the strong nuclear force. HL only
  15. E.3.U15The role of the ratio of neutrons to protons for the stability of nuclides. HL only
  16. E.3.U16Approximate constancy of the binding energy curve above a nucleon number of 60. HL only
  17. E.3.U17The spectrum of alpha and gamma radiations as evidence for discrete nuclear energy levels. HL only
  18. E.3.U18The continuous spectrum of beta decay as evidence for the neutrino. HL only
  19. E.3.U19The decay constant λ and the radioactive decay law: N = N₀e^(−λt). HL only
  20. E.3.U20The decay constant approximates the probability of decay per unit time in the limit of sufficiently small λt. HL only
  21. E.3.U21Activity as the rate of decay: A = λN = λN₀e^(−λt). HL only
  22. E.3.U22Relationship between half-life and decay constant: T½ = ln2/λ. HL only

E.4 Fission

4 outcomes

Open
  1. E.4.U1Energy is released in spontaneous and neutron-induced fission.
  2. E.4.U2The role of chain reactions in nuclear fission reactions.
  3. E.4.U3The role of control rods, moderators, heat exchangers and shielding in a nuclear power plant.
  4. E.4.U4The properties of the products of nuclear fission and their management.

E.5 Fusion and stars

7 outcomes

Open
  1. E.5.U1The stability of stars relies on an equilibrium between outward radiation pressure and inward gravitational forces.
  2. E.5.U2Fusion is a source of energy in stars.
  3. E.5.U3The conditions leading to fusion in stars in terms of density and temperature.
  4. E.5.U4The effect of stellar mass on the evolution of a star.
  5. E.5.U5The main regions of the Hertzsprung–Russell (HR) diagram and the main properties of stars in these regions.
  6. E.5.U6Stellar parallax as a method to determine distance: d(parsec) = 1/p(arc-second).
  7. E.5.U7How to determine stellar radii.